VERMONT’S INVOLVEMENT IN THE BUTTER AND MARGARINE WARS

In the last posting to this blog, butter was established to be a key specialized agricultural product in the State of Vermont during the latter part of the 1880’s, with St. Albans being the “butter Capital of the World.”  It is not surprising then, that Vermont as well as other States reacted so quickly to counter the impact of a new competitive product, oleomargarine.

ADVENT OF OLEOMARGARINE AND ACTIONS TO STYMIE ITS PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION:

Some of us may remember our mothers talking about the color squeeze mixes that had to be added to the uncolored margarine at home.  It was intended as a way for oleo producers to get around the law that prevented them from making oleomargarine look like butter.  Dairy organizations pushed this law in order to ensure that the consumer would be aware that they were buying an artificial and inferior product to butter. The history of efforts to block the production and distribution of oleomargarine go much deeper than this one attempt, however.  One of those efforts was led by one of our own: Vt. Congressman William Wallace Grout, U.S. Congressman from 1885-1901.

OLEOMARGARINE INTRODUCTION:

According to documents, oleomargarine has an interesting history, Napoleon III offered a prize for the formulation of synthetic edible fats as Europe faced a shortage of these products.  Napoleon needed a source of artificial butter for both for the populace and for his army.  The prize for this product was awarded in 1869 to French Scientist Hippolyte MegeMories.  The rest is history, as a U.S. patent for production of oleomargarine was awarded in 1873, and by 1886 thirty-seven plants were operating in the United States with many of these in New York State.  How much this product might affect butter trade was unknown, but concern was real.  “At the turn of the Century, Mark Twain overheard a conversation between two businessmen aboard the Cincinnati riverboat and recorded it in Life on the Mississippi.  “”Why, we are turning out oleomargarine now, by thousands of tons.  And we can sell it so dirt-cheap that the whole country has got to take it—can’t get around it, you see.  Butter don’t stand any show—there ain’t any chance for competition.””(Butter Through the Ages).

The late 1800’s was the height of butter production in Vermont, and a time of growing butter production in other states as well.  Thus the reaction by State legislatures with strong push from dairy interests was quick.  It is reported that organized dairy interests ran articles in publications to incite the public.  One article called margarine “the slag of the butcher shop…a compound of diseased hogs and dead dogs.” (See Harvard law student paper).

• In 1877, New York and Maryland passed the first labeling laws and other states soon followed.  Under these laws, the product had to be marked, stamped, and branded as such, under penalty of $100 or imprisonment for thirty-days. (See Foundation for Economic Education).
• In 1882 dairy and butter interests formed a National Association, the National Association for Prevention of Adulteration of Butter.
• During the period 1884-1885 state after state banned margarine, both it’s manufacture and distribution.  This act was challenged under the Interstate Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution, and the Court found in 1894 that the States could prohibit colored margarine sales, but not uncolored.
• With continued pressure from the U.S. dairy industry, Congress passed the Federal Margarine Act in 1886, which levied a 2-cent tax on the product and annual registration fees for producers of the product.

VERMONT LEGISLATURE’S LAW ON IMITATION BUTTER AND CHEESE-

Chapter 183 of Vermont State Laws, Sections 4334 to Section 4342:

  

In simplest terms, it was unlawful to make butter or cheese out of any product except milk or cream, or to sell any product that was not real or made exclusively from milk and cream except a product that was colored pink (way to show difference from real product).  The law even went further and made it unlawful for any establishment to sell or market any artificial product (unless pink color).  Note the pink color was an attempt to make the consumer aware that it was not a real product.  The U.S. Supreme Court struck down this forced pink coloration that five states like Vermont had imposed saying that “forced adulteration could not be imposed”, but let stand State laws that prohibited margarine producer coloration.

It should be noted that some dairy industry leaders during this time felt that poor quality butter was what brought oleomargarine to the market.  For example, the then former President of the Wisconsin Dairy Association commented in 1880 “oleomargarine is giving better satisfaction than most dairy butter is now made.”  One speaker from Boston at the annual meeting of the Vermont Dairymen’s Association in 1883 stated, “Poor butter is what brought oleomargarine into the market.  If we make good butter, we need not be a bit afraid of oleomargarine.” (State Board of Agriculture Report, 1883-1884). 

VERMONT CONGRESSMAN WALLACE GROUT LEADS EFFORT TO TIGHTEN LAWS AGAINST OLEOMARGARINE:

Congressman Grout had a history of legislative leadership in Vermont where he had been a member of the State legislature (House and Senate).  As Vermont was a predominate dairy state, and was called the butter capital of the world, it was not surprising that he introduced a major piece of legislation that amended the 1886 Margarine Act.  The 1902 Grout Bill imposed a tax of 10 cents per pound on all colored margarine, and ¼ cents per pound on uncolored margarine. The debate was highly charged:  those arguing for margarine argued that it served the needs of the economically needy; Congressman Grout, supported by a well-organized dairy and butter lobby, argued that

            1) margarine was a deceptive work of man, a counterfeit item,

            2) the product would have a ruinous effect as it was dishonest competition on the greatest agricultural industry in the United States, and

            3) the purpose was not to raise revenue for the country, but to regulate the sale of  an article of commerce.

The Grout law passed, but there was a loophole….uncolored margarine was only taxed at ¼ cents per pound, and it was a loophole that the margarine industry responded to, hence the colored squeeze packets that consumers in the home could use, like many of our mothers did, to make the margarine look more like butter.  By 1902, 32 states and 80% of the U.S. population lived under margarine color bans.

EFFORT LONG TERM DID NOT STOP THE MANUFACTURE AND SALE OF MARGARINE:

So, what happened with all this effort to stymie the production and distribution of margarine?  Consumers were the final judges, and so it was with margarine consumption, which increased during the depression and during the war periods. This was mainly because margarine was the less expensive product when compared to butter.   For example, in 1930 the per capita consumption of margarine was 2.6 lbs. versus 17.6 lbs. of butter, and today the consumption of margarine and oil spreads is 8.3 lbs per capita versus butter at 4.2 lbs (FoodBanter.com).  Today there are new methods of margarine production using vegetable and other plant oils that are superior to the oleomargarines of our parents and grandparents.   Margarine consumption overtook butter in 1957.  In 1950 Congress repealed the tax on margarine.  A new film called “Margarine Wars” depicts this period as a comedy.  What was a serious matter to the early butter producers in Vermont and in other states is depicted in this film.  It shows with humor the story of the son of a Swedish dairy farmer in Wisconsin being duped into smuggling margarine into his state.

BLOGGER’S COMMENTS: 

While attempts were made to prohibit or reduce margarine production and distribution through various means to include color, fines, and taxation, these efforts eventually could not overcome consumer interest in these lower cost products.  Also when the imitation products began to be manufactured by oils from corn, soy and other vegetable products it was harder for the dairy industry to fight.  They were now pitted against other agricultural interests, not just the livestock fats and the Chicago slaughterhouses.  This is a lesson that is being learned even today with the production of many artificial consumer products.   Through the years we have learned that consumer demand as well as reasonable product price drives production.

REFERENCES AND SOURCES FOR THIS BLOG POSTING:

• “The War on Margarine” by Adam Young, in Foundation for Economic Education, June 2002, Vol. 52, Issue 6.
• www.iheartmargarine.com
• Butter through the Ages, History of the French Pearl (.com site)
• Margarine, Moonshine and Light, The Task at Hand, Shoreacres.wordpress.com
• The “Oleo Wars” Wisconsin’s Fight over the Demon Spread, by Gerry Strey in Wisconsin Magazine of History, Autumn 2001 issue.
• “Bogus Butter: An Analysis of the 1886 Congressional Debates on Oleomargarine Legislation”: A Thesis Presented by Chris Burns to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the University of Vermont, May 2009.
• Eighth Vermont Agricultural Report, State Board of Agriculture, 1883-1884.
• Tenth Vermont Agricultural Report, State Board of Agriculture, 1887-1888.
• “If It’s Yellow, It Must be Butter”: Margarine Regulation in North America Since 1886, in The Journal of Economic History, 1999, Vol. 59, Issue 2.
• Library of Congress (Open Library): Oleomargarine, Remarks of Congressman William W. Grout of Vermont in the U.S. House of Representatives, Tuesday May 25, 1886.
• History of Margarine in ButterySpread.com
• “The Palette of Our Palates: A Brief History of Food Coloring and its Regulation”, by Adam Burrows, Harvard Law School Class of 2006, May 2006.

NEXT BLOG POSTING:

The Growth of the Fluid Mild Market and Its Challenges

Trivia Question:  From what town in Vermont did the first fluid milk train to Boston leave?

Edition 7, April 22, 2011

THE SLOW MOVEMENT TO COMMERCIAL BUTTER PRODUCTION

                             Butter Production in Vermont

                                                1850    12 million pounds

                                                1851    15.9 million pounds

                                                1886    25 million pounds

                                                1899    35 million pounds

                                                1917    11 million pounds

                                                1927      4 million pounds

According to records, after the decline of the Merino Sheep industry, the movement to commercial butter production did not happen overnight, (see Annual Reports of State Board of Agriculture).  Butter and cheese had always been made on the farm.  This was a skill passed down from one generation to the next.  There was no special breed of cow used for milk…it was just one that was used for many tasks on the farm.   Butter and cheese were consumed in the house, and what was left over was often bartered for other products that were needed by the family but could not be produced on the farm. “ The herds were milked in the open yard; the curds were worked in tubs and log presses.  Everything was done by guess and there was no order, no system, and with no science.” In fact, dairy was incidental to other things grown on the farm until about 1840 when the tide began to turn.  As the urban areas and cities grew, merchants reached out for these products, the majority of which were still produced on the farm before the 1880’s.  How important the women were to this process is cited in the First Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture, “…there are several essential elements necessary to the making of good butter...good cows, good feed, good salt, a good churn, and a good women; and it is said by some that the possession of the last would insure the first four.”  Some expressed the opinion that the dairymen should be adept at making butter too so that they could manufacture it independent of female help.  Butter making, however, was considered to be a fine art that was passed down from generation to generation.  As stated by one individual, “butter making is a fine art.  There are probably more good poets, painters, and sculptors in the world than there are first-class butter makers.”(Fourth Report State Board of Agriculture, 1877).

As the demand for butter increased, farmers responded, but not as quickly as some thought they should and not with the best cattle.  Some claimed, “if one-half as much thought was given to the dairy business as was given to sheep raising…. the dairy production would be doubled.”  Others contended that at least one fourth of the cows used in making milk were worthless. “Everyone went into business hap-hazard.  Everything in the shape of a cow was brought into dairy…no thought or care was given to the production of milk with the animal.” (Eleventh Vt. Agricultural Report, State Board of Agriculture, 1889-90.)  Attempts were made to increase the quality of butter on the farm with education.  For example, in 1870 the Vermont Dairymen’s Association was formed, the first such association in the United States.  Gradually attempts were made to bring better cattle genetics into milk production on the farm.  An example of this is the work of Fredrick Billings in his efforts to import cattle from the Isle of Jersey in 1871. He realized there was more to the making of butter than just milking the family cow.  The quality of the milk was important and so by 1890, the Billings Farm, using the imported breed, was producing 5,000 pounds of butter annually. 

As demand grew, creameries sprang up in many towns and communities around the State.   Historical Societies’ and other documents give information on many of these creameries.  For example, Stowe, Vermont had one, as did Colchester, Brattleboro, Cabot, and many other communities.  By  1900 there were 186 creameries and 66 cheese factories in the State of Vermont, and twenty-four of these creameries were located in Chittenden County.  These creameries were able to establish higher milk quality standards than previously existed.  For example when the creamery in Brattleboro was built in about 1887 (village people took most of the stock), they raised the price of butter by 12 to 14 cents per pound.  They could do this by increasing the quality of their butter.  One way this was done was by demanding total cleanliness on the farm.  To insure this the farms were inspected continually.  After the cheese and butter were made the whey was returned to the farmer to feed the pigs and other livestock.  This way nothing was wasted.

Industries Grow to Support Butter Shipping: 

Butter was shipped in tubs and thus the manufacture of these became an industry in itself in Vermont.  Stowe had such an industry, run by water, near its creamery.  One of Vermont’s major butter tub factories was located in Montgomery, Vermont.  There were four factories there that employed 100 men and used 4 million board feet of spruce lumber each year.  It is said that these factories, under one ownership, made 295,000 tubs each year in three sizes; 20, 30, and 50 pounds as well as a butter box for the family of 5-10 pounds each.  Farmers and creameries took great pride in the packing of butter for shipment.  Many had their own emblem that distinguished their butter from the butter of other farms. 

St. Albans Becomes the Butter Capital of the World in the 1880’s: 

St. Albans was a natural location for producing butter since it was located near many of the large farms and is situated along Lake Champlain’s shore where the butter could be shipped by water.  Before the railroads, butter shipments from the bay were said to take place, but it was not until the advent of the railroads that significant butter commerce began.  In 1854 the Vermont Central Railroad started running a butter train with ice from St. Albans once each week to Boston.  It is said that “Tuesday was market day and the streets were thronged with as many as 300 teams around the cold storage building which was located on the main line of the railroad with side tracks to the refrigerated doors of the building.”  Buyers from as far away as New York and Boston were provided a special room in the building to conduct their business.  St. Albans became a very convenient location for shipping since products could reach leading cities in just a few hours by train.  By 1880, one-fourth of the butter in the State was from Franklin County.

Vermonter’s Take Pride in Their Butter: 

Vermont butter became known for its quality.  For example, the Green Mountain Stock Farm at West Randolph won the Gold Medal for the best butter in the world.  Nevertheless, there still remained concern about quality standards with some claiming that although Vermont made some of the best butter, it made some of the worst as well.  Only by producing the best and with the best milk, many contended, would Vermont be able to sustain its place, and thus obtain a higher price for its farmers.  Milk quality continued to be an issue, and in 1906 the State Board of Health began testing milk samples. Of the 140 samples collected, only 39% met sanitary standards.  These results brought about significant efforts to increase these standards on the farm.

Importance of Technology: 

Two major advancements helped to move butter production forward.  One was the Babcock Test for cream.  This test made it possible for farmers to be paid according to a real measure of cream shipped to the creamery.  The other innovation was the cream separator, made in Sweden. These are models that could be used either on the farm or at the creamery.  By 1890 there were approximately sixty-five mechanical separators being used at the creamery in St. Albans. One of the Vermont manufacturers of these separators was located in Bellows Falls, Vermont.

Interesting Facts Related to Butter Production:

1.     In 1850, 19 tons of butter was made in farmhouses in Duxbury.

2.     In 1888, the Mt. Mansfield Creamery was the first established in Lamoille County.

3.     The Cabot Creamery was established in 1893, and later purchased by 94 farmers at a cost of $5.00 per cow and a cord of wood for the boiler.

4.     Beginning in 1806, Boson traders conducted extensive commerce in enormous blocks of Artic ice, and towed it to destinations all over the Atlantic world.

Blogger’s Comments: 

Butter became an important specialized industry for Vermont in the latter part of the 1800’s.  Spurred on by the needs of the growing cities and by new means of transportation, commerce in butter trade increased.  Support industries sprang up to support this trade.  In next week’s blog I will discuss the reasons for the decline of this specialized industry.

Note:  While this posting discusses the rise of dairy specialization in butter making in the mid to late 1800’s, another agricultural specialization was also taking place after the Civil War when commercial apple orchards were established in Northern Vermont. These orchards were planted near the lake in order to take advantage of the climate and the soil.  By the late 1800’s, Vermont was considered one of the most important apple producing regions in the U.S., and its products were shipped throughout the U.S., as well as to South America, Europe, and Canada. (see The History of the Vermont Apple Industry, from The Season of Apples by the Vermont Department of Agriculture).

Background and References for this blog posting:

·      First Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture, 1872

·      Third Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture, 1875-76

·      Eleventh Report of the State Board of Agriculture, 1889-90

·      Fifteenth Vermont Agricultural Report, State Board of Agriculture, 1895

·      Twentieth Report of the State Board of Agriculture, 1900

·      Twenty-six Annual Report, State Board of Agriculture, 1906

·      Agriculture of Vermont, Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1915

·      Mother Earth News, Guernsey Cattle: Heritage Livestock Breeds, Janet Vorwald Dohner, June 2010

·      A Centennial History of St. Albans Vermont

·      Vermont Barn Census, Chittenden County Student Research Project, 2010.  A Brief Agricultural History of Colchester, Vermont by Elizabeth Warburton

·      “Butter through the Ages”

·      Vermont Historical Society, War and Industry, 1860-1910, “Butter is King.”

·      Cabot of Vermont, The History of the World’s Best Cheddar.

·      Town of Stowe History

·      Town of Warren History

·      Town of Milton History, Milton in the Beginning

·      Billings Farm and Museum, History of the Farm

·      Duxbury, Vermont History, Then and Now by Alice DeLong, 1991

·      Rural Vermont, A Program for the Future, The Vermont Commission on Country Life, Burlington 1931

New Trivia question:  What product competed with butter and what action was taken to try to prevent the trade of this product?

Edition 6, April 13, 2010

DECLINE OF THE MERINO SHEEP AND THE SLOW PROGRESS TO COMMERCIAL DAIRIES

Through the years many changes have taken place in Vermont Agriculture; the sheep industry was just one of those.  In last week’s blog posting, I discussed the reasons for the decline in the Merino sheep industry in Vermont.  The industry spanned a number of years, from the beginning of the 1800’s well into the early part of the 1880’s, with breeding stock being sold around the world, but that too eventually came to an end.  Transportation and production costs, the end of industry protective tariffs, and competition from distant locations all contributed to this collapse. Even in these early years Vermont farmers demonstrated a great ability to adapt to change.  The chart below captures some of the specific time periods of these changes:

                           Approximate Timeframes for Vermont Agriculture

                                    Product                            Timeframe

                                     Grains                              1790-1820

                                     Sheep and horses             1820-1850

                                     Cattle raising                    1830-1870

                                     Butter and Cheese            1840-1915

                                     Fluid Milk and Cream     1900-

                                     Maple                               1760-

                            (From “Studies in Vermont” by Robert Carter)

These changes happened over time due to many different factors although economics played a major role.  The early settlers practiced diversified and extensive agriculture as a means of livelihood for their families and their farms.  Most of what the early farmers grew was used on the farm.  Only the excess produce was sold or bartered to buy those necessities that could not be raised.  As urban areas grew and demand for products increased the farmers responded with increased production of farm products.  With the opening of the Champlain and Erie Canals, and then the railroads, their products could more easily reach distant markets.  These transportation modes also opened farmers up to more competition from those markets in other parts of the country.   For example it is stated, “by 1826 the State was importing 15,000 barrels of flour per year”.  Before this time, flour in the state had been made exclusively from Vermont grains.  Now having seen the loss of being the major grain-producing region of the Northeast, they were not only not exporting grains but were having to import much of what they used.  Vermont farmers had also seen the dire economic realities as western beef and wool, as well as grain forced a change in the production in Vermont of these commodities to other products of value such as butter and cheese.

DIVERSITY OF PRODUCTION HELPED TO CUSHION ECONOMIC CHANGES

One can find an example of the type of diversified production in the types of crops grown and livestock raised, practiced by most Vermont farmers on family farms in the diary of Roxanna Watts.  Her diary, in the year 1866 from Peacham, Vermont,  (see Roxana’s Children) records activities on the farm;  “sugaring in the spring; planting oats, wheat, potatoes, beans in May; shearing sheep and “drawing muck”—spreading of manure in June; harvesting hay in July and August and cutting oats and wheat; In September cutting corn, picking apples, and marketing sheep and lambs.  In October and November, husking corn, plowing and picking and drawing stone.   All this in addition to the daily chores.”

An additional example of this diversification can be found in The History of Vermont (Crockett, Vol. 3).  It states “in 1850 Vermont had 29,763 farms with an average value per acre of $19.09 (which in today’s dollars would be approximately $550.00 per acre).  In the State there were 146,128 milch cows (notice the spelling), 154,143 horses, 1,014,122 sheep, and 66,296 swine.  During this time, the following agricultural products were produced in the state:  12 million pounds of butter; 9 million pounds of cheese; 3.4 million pounds of wool.  Other products included: 2 million bushels of corn; ½ million bushels of wheat; 2 million bushels of oats; 42 thousand bushels of barley; 176,000 bushels of rye; 209,000 bushels of buckwheat; 105,000 bushels of field beans; 5 million bushels of potatoes 866,000 tons of hay; $315 worth of orchard products; 20 thousand pounds of flax; 288,000 pounds of hops; 260 pounds of silk in cocoons; 6 million pounds of maple sugar; 5.697 gallons of maple syrup; and 249,000 pounds of honey.  In the Fourth Report of the State Board of Agriculture in 1877 it is stated “ that 90% of what is consumed is raised in the State of Vermont.  The State exports 50% of its oats, 80% of its potatoes, 2/3s of its butter, but imports 40% of its flour and 50% of its meats.”

The above diversity of production in early Vermont agriculture illustrates that farmers have always realized that their existence depended and still depends upon their ability to adapt to the pressures of changing economic times.

Some interesting happenings from this period of the 1800’s:

• The legislature in 1835 passed an act to encourage the growing of silk.  The State Treasurer was authorized to give a bounty of 10 cents for each pound of cocoons “raised or grown.”  Some, but a very little was grown in the years 1835 through      1850.
• In 1829 “Fairbanks Brothers added a new line of business, the purchase and preparation of hemp.”  Due to the inaccurate method of weighing this product, the brothers invented the platform scale, which became their business.
• Intoxicating liquors were an issue during the early part of the 1800’s according to documents (see Crockett History of Vermont, Vol. 3).  It is stated that cider brandy as well as corn and rye whiskey were made in large quantities.  There were said to be two hundred distilleries in the State of Vermont with many towns having one or more. In 1810 alone there were 125 distilleries in the State making 173,000 gallons of apple brandy (U.S. Census of 1810). This period came to an end with the Temperance movement with legislation in 1852 that prohibited the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor as a beverage but ‘permitted its use for sacramental purposes.”
• Horse raising and trade was an important agricultural activity in the early years according to records.  For example, “Randolph and Royalton furnished many to export and to the driving-horse trade.  The cheaper grades being sold as streetcar horses.  Mule colts were also raised for the West Indies sugar trade.” (See Rural Vermont, A Program for the Future).
• Hops was an important crop in the 1800’s as well.  According to data, by 1850 Vermont was second to New York in production.  That represented 8% of U.S. production (see History of Hops in Vermont).  Eventually this industry, due to economics, moved westward as well.
• The legislature of 1779 required each town to care for the poor, and this was based upon the “poor laws of England.”  Poor farms were established throughout Vermont.  The intent was for these to become self-sufficient with crops sold as income, with labor coming from those sent there as being poor and paupers. (See larrycoffin.blogspot.com).  The establishment of these farms also demonstrated the importance of agriculture to local communities.

Blogger’s Comments:  Over time Vermont farmers have always shown an ability to adjust to changing economic conditions, and this was especially true with the decline of the Merino sheep industry.  There was a slow progression after that time to dairy farming with more specialization in butter and cheese production.  Next week’s blog posting will begin with information on how that specialization came about and what influenced the growth in butter and cheese production in the State in the mid to late 1800’s.

Sources and References for this week’s blog posting:

• Vermont, A History of the Green Mountains by Edmund Fuller, State Board of Education, Montpelier, 1952
• “Remember the Poor”(Galatians 2:10): Poor Farms in Vermont by Steven R. Hoffbeck, the Vermont Historical Society, Vol 57, No. 4, Fall 1989.
• Climate, Cropping, and Society in Vermont, 1820-50 by David Demeritt, Vermont Historical Society, Vol. 59, No. 3, Summer 1991.
• Freedom and Unity, A History of Vermont by Michael Sherman, Gene Sessions and P. Jeffery Potash, Vermont Historical Society, 2004.
• The Vermont of Today by Arthur F. Stone, Vol. 11, Lewis Historical Publishing Co. Inc., NY, 1929
• Vermont, A Guide to the Green Mountain State, 3^rd Edition Revised, Edited by Ray Bearse, Houghton Miffin Co., Boston, 1968.
• History of Vermont by Walter Hill Crockett, Vol. three, The Century History Co., Inc. NY, 1921
• Reports of the State Board of Agriculture:  1874, 1877, 1889-90.
• Rural Vermont, A Program for the Future, The Vermont Commission on Country Life, 1931.
• Studies in Vermont, History, Geography and Government by Robert M. Carter, Carter and Co., St. Johnsbury, 1937
• The Road Less Traveled: Rural Northern New England in Global Perspective, 1815-1960, A dissertation presented by Christopher Harris to the Department of History In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the field of History.  Northeastern University, May 2007.
• History of Hops in Vermont by Jeremy Perkins, a paper.
• Vermont Railroad Timeline, Freedom and Unity, Vermont Historical Society
• Larrycoffin.blogspot.com
• Roxana’s Children, The Biography of a Nineteenth-Century Vermont Family by Lynn A. Bonfield and Mary C. Morrision, University of Massachusetts Press, 1995

Last week’s trivia question:  What was the first railroad chartered by the Vermont legislature?

Answer:  The first chartered railroad was a line from Rutland to Whitehall, New York in 1831.  It was never built.  The first built was the Vermont Central in 1843 (see Vermont Railroad Timeline, Vt. Historical Society).

Trivial question for next week:  Which town in Vermont became the butter capital of the world in the latter part of the 1880’s?

Edition 5, April 1^st 2011

THE SHEEP CRAZE IN VERMONT’S AGRICULTURAL HISTORY

The sheep industry transformed Vermont and New England’s landscape.  The Merino sheep grazed on the hills and in the valleys and became known worldwide for their fine wool.  Today the hills of Vermont are dotted with many old cellar holes and stonewalls that date back to this thriving period.  One can also see many of the old mill building sites that still exist throughout New England.  These mills played an important role in the woolen industry during the years between 1810 and 1870.  It was here that the wool was processed into finished goods.  Much has been written about this period and can be found in town records, Historical Society documents, and other material.  What brought about this change from subsistence farming to industrial agriculture, and in particular to the sheep industry, is the subject of this weekly blog.   (A question that might be asked is how do these events of the past relate to what is happening in our Vermont and Northeast dairy industry today?)

WILLIAM JARVIS, Former Consul to Portugal and resident of Wethersfield, Vermont:

In some books William Jarvis has been called an “evangelist” for the Merino sheep, or an early “Ben and Jerry’s” of the sheep industry.  His history, both as Consul to Portugal and eventually as a resident of Weathersfield, is well documented.  In reading the material written about him, it is clear that he was a well established business person from a very prominent Boston family, very well connected in the highest levels of government.   Jarvis had an early business failure, but with the help of his father he re-established himself.   He went on to create and run a successful international trading firm, and in this capacity he became very well connected with government officials and business leaders throughout Europe. Because of these connections, President Jefferson appointed him Consul to Lisbon Portugal.

Why Merino Sheep? 

The Merino sheep had been bred for their fine fleece and were the sheep of the “hills”.  For many years they had been protected by Spain from export as a way to sustain the price of fine wool.  However, with the invasion of Spain by Napoleon, there was concern about the plight of the prized sheep.  Jarvis took advantage of this political and military unrest, and his connections in 1809 to ship some of these prized animals to the Untied States.   While he was not the first to do so (a Colonel Humphreys, Consul to Spain, seven years earlier had shipped some to his farm in Connecticut and also to a farm in Westminster, Vermont), he was the first to become an advocate for their advancement in the U.S.  According to information published in 1879 by the Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders Association, some 15,767 Merino sheep arrived throughout the East Coast from Spain for the period of 1810-1811.  Boston had twenty-nine vessels carrying a total of 2048 sheep; New York had 52 vessels totaling 9,349 sheep; Philadelphia had four vessels totaling 389 sheep; other ships went to Norfolk, Virginia, New Haven, Connecticut; Portland, Maine; and Providence, Rhode Island. (When he shipped the sheep he sent some as a gift to Jefferson).

Why Did Jarvis Come to Vermont?

According to historic information, Jarvis actually was looking for a location in Virginia to bring his sheep, but he had an uncle and a cousin that lived in Claremont, New Hampshire. They suggested a farm across the river in Weathersfield, Vermont, which Jarvis purchased upon his return from Spain.  It is stated that he brought approximately 3500 sheep to Weathersfield along with shepherds, and dogs as well as other animals.  He purchased and cleared additional acreage around this farm and soon became known as a “ zealot” for the advancement of the Marino sheep breed in the United States.  In addition to raising the sheep, he traveled around the country speaking to the merits of the Marino and their wool.  He even employed a network of merchants for selling wool, and became a part owner and investor in a textile mill in Quechee, Vermont.

What Fueled the Sheep Craze? 

The war of 1812 and the Jefferson embargo raised wool prices to $2.50 per pound as imports were blocked, and trade paralyzed.    Mills needed product and the fine fleece of the Merino’s were in great demand.  While Vermont had sheep before this time, and woolen mills too, the wool was not the quality of the Merino.  Jarvis helped fuel the supply by lending money to farmers interested in establishing flocks and providing technical assistance. (The bloodline from his flock became the foundation of the Vermont Merinos).   This period of unrest with Britain also fueled a manufacturing independence streak in the United States, especially when the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1814 and British manufactured goods, especially cotton and woolen goods flooded the U.S. markets.   With significant pressure on Congress and from our own Vermont delegation, and with pamphlets on the need for a tariff written by Jarvis to high-powered friends, the Tariff Act of 1823 came about.  This act gave new life to the production of fine wool.  It is said, “that manufacturers went from county to county offering large prices for fine wool.”

The hills and valleys of Vermont were ideal for the Merino Sheep, where grass was said to be “ king.”  Many towns in Vermont had at least 1,000 sheep according to records, and Addison County had the greatest number.  By 1840, the Town of Shoreham was the home to 40,000 sheep.  Vermont was the sheep capital of the world by this time with 1.6 million sheep.   It is said, “it was the Vermont soil, Vermont climate, and the Yankee skill” that made the state an ideal place for this industry to thrive.  “The Merino sheep breeders of Addison County have achieved for themselves…an enviable reputation and the whole world has come to buy of them and fabulous prices have been received.” Vermont and the Merino sheep industry were captive, however, to tariff regulations and international events and western and international competition.  With pressure on the reduction on these protective tariffs, the price of wool dropped from 57 cents per pound in 1835 to 25 cents per pound in late 1840.  This downward pressure on prices resulted in two thirds of the State’s sheep being killed between 1846 and1850.

This was not the end to the period of fluctuation in prices or the role of the Merino sheep in Vermont.  The Civil War increased, for a time, the demand for wool for uniforms and cloths as the South had been cut off as a supply source.  Also, Addison County became known for their breeding stock, which was sold around the world for good prices. The decade from 1860 to 1870 was one where Vermont farmers sent many sheep to Western States, carload after carload from the best flocks.  This export is said to have decreased after western wool growers began to feel the impact of the tariff reductions in 1883.   Nevertheless, Vermont farmers had achieved great success in the breeding of these animals.  For example, each sheep on average yielded three times as much wool in 1870 as they had in 1840.    At the International Exhibition in Hamburg, Germany in 1863, a Vermont Merino took two first prizes as having the heaviest fleece and longest wool of any of that class exhibited.

What led its Economic Decline?

Vermont’s position as a leader in producing some of the finest wool from the Merino sheep ended.  This was due to many factors including tariff protection changes, western and international competition, and the cost of producing sheep on smaller farms and acreage.  It was said that it cost from $1.00-$2.00s per head to produce sheep in Vermont versus $1.00 to 25 cents per head in the West.  Also, any system of small flocks, such as those in Vermont, could not compete, under a reduced tariff system, with the large flocks in Australia and Argentina that could include as many as 100,000 to 400,000 sheep.   The Merino sheep period changed Vermont’s landscape, it’s culture, and it’s agricultural and manufacturing industry.  It would take some time for the dairy sector to bloom.   Sheep did not have to be milked each day and thus required less everyday attention.  Probably one of the best summaries of the agricultural economics of this period is from the Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders Association in 1879, “no farm stock except Merino sheep has been affected by such extraordinary seasons of favor, amounting to mania, when prices have been enhanced to such extraordinary fictitious values, when large numbers without qualifications or due consideration have embarked in the business of breeding them, until by the action of some unfriendly legislation it would immediately follow depressing prices…until…flocks of Merinos…crushed out and threatened with annihilation?”

How Does the Sheep Industry of the 1800’s Compare to the Dairy Industry of Today? 

There have been those who have compared this period to what is happening in dairy sector today.  The continuing westward migration of dairy production with very large dairy farms in several western states; an antiquated pricing system that results in wide pricing swings when national production greatly exceeds supply; lower cost of production on many western farms with subsidized water and power; a tariff system that helps protect against large imports from other countries that has been subject of WTO and bi-lateral trade negotiations to allow freer trade from lower cost of production countries like New Zealand; and dependence on Congress for changes to provide more economic equality and opportunities for Northeast dairy farmers. While there may be some similarities in this regard, I submit that differences now exist to include an interest in local and regional food production; increased costs of transportation in bringing product from more distant markets; the recognition by many that value added product production with products that meet consumer needs is the future, as well as the need for greater diversification on the farm.  This recognition has resulted in the growth of farm-based and other specialty cheese and product production. Vermont also is a state that benefits from livestock agriculture that can convert grass to meat or milk, as history has demonstrated over time that grass is truly “king”.  Also, Vermont farmers’ access to nearby markets and the renewed interest in local and regional foods is an encouraging trend given other similarities with the Merino sheep industry of the past.

ANSWER TO LAST WEEK’S TRIVIA QUESTION:  Who was the Governor from Southern Vermont that was a farm implement inventor and the first President of the Vermont Agricultural Society?

It was Governor Fredrick Holbrook of Brattleboro who served as Governor in the early 1860’s.  He invented the Holbrook Swivel Plow, considered to be one of the great improvements of the day.  Governor Holbrook was also a friend of President Lincoln and an early advocate for an agency to address agricultural issues at the federal level.

THIS WEEK’S TRIVIA QUESTION:  When was the first railroad in Vermont chartered by the Vermont legislature?

Sources and References for this Blog update:

• History of Vermont by Walter Hill Crockett, Vol. 3, The Century History Company, Inc. N.Y. 1921
• Vt. Historical Society, An era of change, 1820-1850, William Jarvis and the Merino Sheep Craze
• Past Times: Stories From The Sheldon Museum “Lambing Time” March 2008 by Jan Albers, Ex. Director Henry Sheldon Museum, Middlebury, VT.
• History of the First National Bank of Orwell, Vermont
• Town of Weathersfield History
• The Life and Times of Honorable William Jarvis of Weatherfield by Mary Pepperell Sparhawk Cutts, Nabu Press, 2010
• The Bleat of the Sheep, The Bark of the Tree; Vermonters and Their Landscape, A View From the Archivist, Delivered Mar. 31, 2001, Vt. Landscape Conference, Fleming Museum, in Vermont History, Vol. 70; Winter Spring 2002
• Spanish Merino Sheep, Their Importation from Spain, Introduction into Vermont and Improvement Since Introduced.  Vol. 1, Published by Vermont Merino Sheep Breeders Association, 1879.
• Reports of the State Board of Agriculture for each of the following years: 1872, 1874, 1877, 1878, 1887-88, and 1888-89.

            Edition 4, March 23, 2011

TRANSITION FROM SUBSISTENCE TO COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE, Early 1800's:

As towns were created, it placed more demands for food and related products on the nearby farmers.  What the farmers did not need for their families was transported to nearby markets as well as those further away.  Local stores often bartered with the farmer for staples such as salt, coffee, tea, and other products. The storeowners then took those excess supplies and bartered for those their store supplies that could not be purchased nearby.  Home spinning and weaving still took place with home grown flax and wool.  It is documented that "grain, potatoes and livestock were transported to markets in Montreal, Quebec, Troy, Albany, and Boston."  Significant exports between 1800-1804 were potash, pearlash, whiskey, pork, beef, wheat flour, grain, butter, cheese, lumber and horses.  Prior to 1830, dairy was still only a small portion of farm income and production was very rudimentary with cheese and butter being made in the house. 

It is said that farming in the "West section of Vermont became specialized before that in the Eastern side of the State." This was due to the lay of the land, the fertility of the soil, and the proximity to the markets. The growing of grains in the Champlain Valley was a very important industry before 1820 and the grains were either distilled locally or hauled to markets in Albany and Troy.

During this time and up until the railroads, "drover" drives of livestock to markets were very common.  Professor James Dean of The University of Vermont in the Atlas of Vermont for 1808 wrote "12,000 to 15,000 head of beef cattle were driven from the state to the Boston market."  Other documentation also indicates the importance of these drives.  "Prior to 1850 and the maturing of railroad transportation, southeast Vermont and southwest New Hampshire benefited from being major transit zones.  Every autumn, many tens of thousands of sheep and cattle, horses and pigs, turkeys and geese would be driven to market.  Many followed the Connecticut River Valley to Greenfield, Springfield, and Hartford.  Even more would continue across Cheshire and Hillsborough Counties in New Hampshire to Worcester, Lowell and Boston.  As many as a hundred thousand animals a year would pass through Keene, New Hampshire in herds of 200 to 400 animals.  Moving ten to fifteen miles at best per day, it might take three or more weeks to make it to Brighton Market outside of Boston.  Many drives also went through the Champlain Valley to New York either on foot or via the Champlain Canal down the Hudson." 

GROWTH OF AGRICULTURE SUPPORT INDUSTRIES IN TOWNS:

As towns became established, industry that supported agriculture began to spring up across the state.  These industries included blacksmiths, tanneries, gristmills, carting mills, saw mills, foundries, starch mills, and other establishments. Histories of local towns, found in historical society collections as well as local libraries, give us information on these early industries.  Water from rivers and dams were a major source of power and so most of these industries were located close to water sources.   In the Gazetteer and Business Directory of Chittenden County Vermont for 1882-83, one can find the history of some of these mills for each Chittenden County town.  For example, in Jericho, Horatio B. Barney's carding-mill was built in 1819;  Shelburne Falls with durable waterpower had one flourmill, one sawmill, one shingle-mill and a blacksmith shop.  Every settlement had at least one mill. These support industries contributed to the further commercial development of agriculture within the State of Vermont.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION NETWORKS FURTHER TRADE:

Transportation networks, both roads and water, became essential for the further development of agriculture as well as the development of industry and trade.  Road building is said to have begun in the late 1700's with private turnpikes chartered by the Vermont legislature.  One such example was the Windham Turnpike Company.   The company was incorporated in 1799 and built a road for travel between Brattleboro and Bennington.  They were permitted to erect five tollgates. Private turnpikes, such as this, were in use for approximately forty years at which time they became part of the highway system.  These turnpikes eased the way for stagecoaches that took travelers and commerce to distant markets.  Many towns prospered along these routes.

The growth of commerce grew rapidly between 1790 and 1814.  During these years canal and water travel became as important as overland means.  In Bellows Falls a canal was begun in 1792 that "was built with English Capital".  It is said that by means of flat-bottomed boats on this canal, a large freight business was done for many years between Hartford, Connecticut and Bellows Falls, Vermont.  "These boats were 72 feet long and 11 1/2 feet wide and when loaded carried 30 tons and had a draw of 2-3 feet of water.  It took approximately 3 days to get to Hartford."  Also important to the western side of Vermont was the commerce that took place on Lake Champlain. “Before 1792 Burlington was largely a forest. There were no wharves, and goods brought in sloops were landed in scows, with the exception of casks of liquor and molasses, which were floated ashore."  Because of its position on the lake, Burlington soon became a flourishing center important to the state’s economic growth. With the completion of the 64-mile Champlain Canal in 1823 Burlington’s commercial importance was enhanced greatly.  This waterway connected the Hudson River to Lake Champlain and provided a means for travel as well as commerce. Other canals were proposed across Vermont and so this time became known as the "canal craze period”. 

References and Sources for Information:

* “Studies in Vermont, History, Geography and Government”, by Robert M. Carter, St. Johnsbury, 1937

* Vermont Genealogy at ancestry.com

* Agricultural Policies in Vermont, 1860-1945 by Edwin C. Rozwenc, Vt. Historical Society, 1981

* History of Vermont by Walter Hill Crockett, Vol. 2, 1921

* Gazetteer and Business Directory of Chittenden Country, Vt. For 1882-83 by Hamilton Child

* Rural Vermont, A Program for the Future, The Vermont Commission on Country Life, Burlington, 1931

* Atlas of Vermont for 1808 by Professor James Dean, UVM

* “The Road Less Traveled by: Rural Northern New England in Global Perspective, 1815-1960”.  A dissertation presented by Christopher Harris to the Dept. of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of History, Northeastern University, Boston, May 2007

* Fifth Report of the State Board of Agriculture, 1878

* A Stitch in Time: Townshend, Vermont: 1753-2003

* Canals of the Connecticut River, Vermont History at ancestry.com

* Rhymes of Vermont Rural Life, Second Series, Daniel L. Cady, 1922, The Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vt. 1922  (see Rhyme on "A Vermont Drove of Cattle." Page 100)

Comment by Blogger:  The early settlers and farmers understood the importance of local and regional markets.  Improved methods of transportation allowed better access to these markets, through roads and river, lake and canal traffic.  This was before the west had opened up and before railroads were established.  In the next blog I will focus on the man William Jarvis whose import of prized Merino sheep transformed Vermont’s regional agriculture and supporting industries.  Who was this leader and what did he do to help transform agriculture in Vermont and the region? What led to the economic collapse of this important agricultural enterprise?  What can be learned from this period that might apply today?

Trivia Question:  Which Governor from Southern Vermont was President of the Vermont Agricultural Society and a farm implement inventor?

 

1791-1808 - TRANSITION FROM SETTLEMENT CLEARINGS TO FARMS

On last week's blog I posted the major timeline for Vermont agriculture for the 150 years from 1791 to 1941.  As I do more research, my interest throughout the whole period is the tipping points or reasons that major changes in Vermont agriculture and thus the use of the landscape took place over the years.  Clearly, some of the changes are due to international events, regional and national interests, other economic influences, and of course the people and their leaders.

This week I am commenting on the period from 1791 through 1808, or the period in the timeline "Transition from Settlement Clearings to Farms".  Much has been written about this period and is available from the Vermont Historical Society, in town historical material, and from other sources to include journals.  My interest is to focus on what led to the increased migration of white settlers to Vermont; why they came, and what they did after they came relative to agriculture and use of the landscape.

WHY WHITE SETTLERS CAME TO SETTLE VERMONT?

With the Treaty of Paris in 1763, England won the continent.  With this, France lost their authority over Canada, and northern lands were now open.  The lands were open, cheap, and accessible and of good soil fertility which was lacking in Southern New England.  The settlers of Vermont were hardy, accustomed from childhood to the use of axe and gun, and eager and full of ambitious purpose to found homes and communities of their own.   A large portion the settlers came from Connecticut and Massachusetts.  Of 85,072 population reported in 1790, approximately 81,200 were of English origin and 2,600 Scotch.  These two comprised more than 98 percent of the total population of the State. Between 1780 and 1800, the population of Vermont increased from 30,000 to 150,000.  (Ref. and Source:  History of Vermont, Vol. 1, by Walter Hill Crockett, 1921.)

Comment from State Board of Agriculture Ninth Report, 1885-1886: "My father used to say, one generation to clear the land of trees, the next generation to remove the stumps and level the land, and the third generation to work in the production of crops."

In 1796, while in England, Ira Allen wrote a letter to the Duke of Portland describing Vermont's resources:  "The soil with a little cultivation supplies inhabitants with all the necessaries of life in abundance, such as wheat, oats, rye, beans, barley.  They have no necessity to introduce foreign grasses, where every hill and valley affords abundance of herbage spontaneously, and every plain, permitted to remain a few months untouched, becomes a meadow.  The woods also produce other fruits in great plenty some of which you are obliged to pamper in your hothouses in England.  Our climate is mild, our soil fertile, our inhabitants industrious, our provisions abundant and cheap, and it is our determination to avail ourselves of these blessings and to hand them down at least unimpaired to our children."  (Ref. and Sources:  History of Vermont, Vol. 1., by Walther Hill Crocket, 1921; and Vermont Its Resources and Opportunities by Walter H. Crockett, Pub. By Provisions of No.71 of the Acts of 1915 of the General Assembly of the State of Vermont.)

WHAT THEY DID TO SURVIVE: 

After clearing of the land, a few crops between stumps were raised.  Corn was a stable crop along with beans, pumpkins, turnips and parsnips, a few potatoes and wheat, barley, and buckwheat.  Also, a cow and pig were often secured.  As soon as a regular system of agriculture could be established, sheep were kept for wool and considerable flax was raised.  Much of the economy at this time was barter except for the selling of "salts."  The manufacture of "salts" was an important item with the early settlers.  This product was made by burning hardwood trees to ashes, (clearing the land), and boiling the lye from the ashes.  These 'salts" were sold to manufacturers of pearlash, used in making soap, glass and other products.  The market value ranged from three to five and one-half dollars per hundred pounds, and was one of the few products that could be sold for cash.  Much of the product was exported to England.  Many a family has been saved from great suffering if not from actual starvation by the sale of "salts." In 1791, Vermont exported more than 1,000 tons of potash to England.  (Ref. and Source:  History of Vermont, Vol. 1, by Walther Hill Crockett, 1921)

THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF POTASH AND PEARLASH: 

Potash is the residue remaining after all the water has been driven off from the lye solution obtained from the leaching of wood ashes.  Pearlash is then made from the potash by baking it in a kiln until all the carbon impurities are burned off.  The fine white powder remaining is pearlash.  Potash and later pearlash were valuable items of the export trade to England.  Peddlers would travel from village to village collecting potash made on the farms.  For many, this was the only cash value received all year. (Much has been written about the impact on the ecology and environment of the state due to this rapid deforestation.)  England was keen on this product, as they had depleted their own timber resources.  They sent experts and manuals on potash making to the colonies to encourage production and even provided tariff incentives. England needed soap to wash the wool from their sheep prior to product manufacturing.  (Ref. and Sources: www.arboyce.com)

Note:  Samuel Hopkins of Philadelphia, Pa (Pittsford, Vt.) received Patent No. 1, on July 31, 1790 for an improvement "in making potash and pearlash by a new apparatus and process."  President George Washington signed the Patent.  This is said to be the first industrial chemical and is the first Patent granted.  (Ref. and Source: www.me.utexas.edu)

Blogger's Note:  As we discuss agriculture today and the influence that events elsewhere have on food production and supply, it is hard to ignore even the influences in prior times.  What if there had been no Treaty of Paris and the French and Indian Wars had continued? What if England had not had the need for potash and pearlash from the Colonies? Even as we discuss local food systems today, it is impossible to ignore the influence that regional markets and national and international forces have on Vermont’s working landscape.

In next week's blog I will discuss some of the local agricultural commerce that began to take place as settlements and better transportation modes were established.